Field evaluation of ethnoveterinary herbal medicine for sustainable duck health management in smallholder systems in Palembon Village, Indonesia

Smallholder duck production contributes significantly to rural livelihoods in Indonesia by supporting household income, food security, and integrated agroecosystems. However, sustainability remains constrained by recurrent disease outbreaks, limited veterinary access, inadequate biosecurity, and rising production costs. In response to these challenges, farmers frequently rely on ethnoveterinary herbal medicine using locally available plants such as Carica papaya, Curcuma longa, Zingiber officinale, and Curcuma xanthorrhiza. Although culturally embedded and economically accessible, these practices are often empirical and lack standardized preparation, dosage, and preventive frameworks. This field-based quasi-experimental study evaluated the effect of a structured ethnoveterinary educational intervention on farmers’ knowledge of herbal-based duck health management in Palembon Village, Indonesia. Forty smallholder duck farmers completed pretest–posttest assessments. Baseline knowledge scores were low (69/200; mean 1.73 ± 1.56), indicating irregular and reactive herbal use. Following participatory training, total scores increased significantly to 146/200 (mean 3.65 ± 1.11), representing a 112% relative improvement with a large practical effect size (Cohen’s d > 1.4). Participants demonstrated improved understanding of plant identification, preparation techniques, symptom-based treatment matching, preventive supplementation, and integration with hygiene and biosecurity practices. These findings demonstrate that structured ethnoveterinary education can transform empirical herbal practices into systematic and preventive animal health strategies. By strengthening smallholder productivity, reducing dependence on synthetic pharmaceuticals, and promoting sustainable use of medicinal plant biodiversity, this approach supports Zero Hunger through improved agricultural productivity (SDG 2), Good Health and Well-Being via antimicrobial stewardship (SDG 3), Responsible Consumption and Production through reduced pharmaceutical reliance (SDG 12), and Life on Land through biodiversity conservation (SDG 15).